[Philippine corruption] Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines The Political Economy of Authoritarianism #8/163

Racial tensions
existed among native Filipinos, called indios; those Spaniards born in the
Philippines, called insulares; those Spaniards born in Spain, called peninsulares; and
those of mixed races, the Spanish and Chinese mestizos.32 Racial conflicts were
carried into the church, as seen in the discrimination against native and mestizo
members of the clergy. Liberal ideas acquired by mestizos influenced and inspired
them to plead for and demand reforms, but because of their race, the elite created
by economic wealth did not have political authority. They clamored for increased
political participation, which meant participation in the affairs of the colonies.
Filipino students in Spain and other countries of Europe published newspapers and
leaflets asking for reform in the colonies." Among the leaders of the propaganda
movement was the Philippine national hero, Jose Rizal. In his two novels, Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo, both written in Spanish, he described a cancerous
society in Noli and a revolution that failed in Fili.34

The writings of propagandists influenced the beginnings of a movement toward
an armed revolution. Andres Bonifacio, a warehouseman, organized the secret
society that launched the revolution, but its existence was divulged to the friars.3S
Rizal, meanwhile, earned the ire of the Spanish authorities for inspiring an armed
struggle he himself did not condone. As a result, he was executed in 1896. The
revolution was riven by factionalism, division, and ethnic rivalries. Andres
Bonifacio, the father of the revolution, was even executed by other rebels for alleged
treason. Emilio Aguinaldo, the emergent military leader from Cavite, consolidated
his leadership in the revolutionary army. A truce ended the battles; however, even
while the "Te Deum" was being sung in the Manila cathedral to celebrate the truce
and even though revolutionary leaders had gone into self-exile in Hong Kong, the
fighting continued between the belligerents. Both sides broke their promises. The
Spaniards continued their repressive policies and did not pay full indemnity to the
Filipino rebels. The rebels did not surrender all armaments and deposited the
indemnity as downpayment for arms and ammunitions. During their Hong Kong
exile, self-exiled leaders bought arms with the money from the armistice and
unofficially communicated with American representatives in Asia.36

THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT

After the settlement of the western frontier, the United States directed its
attention toward the Pacific and Asia. Commodore Matthew Perry forced the
opening of Japan from its many years of seclusion and isolation. Even though they
were latecomers in the scramble for colonies, the Americans conducted brisk trade
in Asia, including the Philippines. The possibilities of a foothold in the rich market
of Asia and a "chunk of the Chinese melon" were a welcome prospect, so the U.S.
government proposed an "open door policy" for China.

As early as the 1790s, an American ship unloaded cargo in the Philippines and
took back exports such as sugar, hemp, and indigo. When the Philippines was
opened to international trade, U.S. commerce increased. Two businesses-Russell,
Sturgis, and Company; and Peele, Hubbell, and Company-engaged in various
enterprises: banking, insurance, trade, and shipping. In the 1850s, American vessels
entering and leaving the port of Manila carried the highest tonnage. Between 1880
and 1889, the United States was the chief importer of Philippine products and U.S.
trade accounted for "39 percent of the total annual average value of all Philippine
exports, buying 59 percent of all sugar and 44 percent of all hemp exported. "" Even
before the sugar quota, the Philippines had been a source for sweetening American
coffee and candies.

The mysterious sinking of the ship U.S.S. Maine in the harbor of Havana, Cuba
in 1898 raised American patriotic feelings and initiated the march toward the
Spanish-American War. Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent imperialist and Assistant
Secretary of the Navy at the time, ordered Commodore George Dewey to sail his
squadron to Manila Bay. The Spanish navy under the command of Admiral Patricio
Montojo neither wanted to hurt Spanish pride nor surrender without honor. In a
mock battle between the decrepit Spanish armada and the American navy, the
Americans proclaimed victory, and Intramuros, the Spanish "walled city" of Manila,
was surrendered to the Americans. That mock battle brought to American attention
the existence of the Philippine Islands." The Treaty of Paris of 1898, which
concluded the Spanish-American War, ceded the Philippines, Cuba, and other
Spanish colonies to the United States for $60 million.

The Filipinos, in the meantime, resumed their struggle for independence. They
were already in control of areas outside Manila during the Battle of Manila Bay.
Revolutionary leaders who returned from self-exile brought back arms and
ammunitions. With the massive support of the populace, they scored successes in the
armed struggle that culminated in the declaration of Philippine independence on June
12, 1898.